Introduction

Learners’ communicative capability is one of the ultimate goals of any L2 teaching-learning process. Learners’ proficiency in communicating the target language depends on frequency of practice inside and outside the classroom, and frequent practice of the target language depends on the number of opportunities and the learners’ readiness to take advantage of these opportunities. This readiness is known as willingness to communicate (WTC), a learning construct which MacIntyre et al. (1998) defined as “a readiness to enter into discourse at a particular time with a specific person or persons, using a L2” (p. 547). These researchers also indicated that learners with high WTC will effectively use any opportunity to practice their target language and gradually improve their communication skills (MacIntyre, 2007; MacIntyre et al., 1998).

Research has shown that learning motivation affects WTC (e.g., Darasawang & Reinders, 2021; Fallah, 2014; Hashimoto, 2002; MacIntyre & Charos, 1996). To investigate the relationship between motivation and WTC, L2 Motivational Self System (L2MSS), proposed in detail by Dörnyei (2005) has been frequently used in recent years (e.g., Ghanizadeh et al., 2016; Munezane, 2013; Wei & Xu, 2021).

Characteristics of the teacher can affect the student’s WTC and learning motivation. Teacher immediacy, teacher credibility, teacher-student rapport, teacher support, and task orientation are frequently discussed as teacher-induced factors that may affect L2 learners’ WTC, motivation, and other learning constructs. A decade ago, Renandya (2014) proposed a 5Ts framework for teacher-induced variables. This framework systematically lists what a teacher can do to improve the students’ motivation to learn. The 5Ts are Teacher, Teaching methodology, Text, Task and Test. More recently, Wang and Lee (2019) effectively adapted Renandya’s 5Ts framework for their research.

As mentioned above, a student’s WTC is related to their frequent use of the target language inside the class. This frequency of L2 use by the student is related to how the teacher performs the teaching activities. In other words, teacher-induced factors can affect the student’s WTC directly or indirectly. Research has shown that teacher immediacy is associated with this L2 learning construct (Alrabai, 2022; Gol et al., 2014; Sheybani, 2019). Teacher-student rapport, teacher credibility, teacher caring behaviour, teacher error correction and topic selection, and the teacher’s L2 use can also influence a student’s WTC (Alrabai, 2022; Cai, 2021; Dewaele & Dewaele, 2018; Song et al., 2022; Zarrinabadi, 2014). Despite many studies on the teacher-induced factors listed above, there has been no report of a similar research employing the 5Ts framework. Therefore, this case study uses the 5Ts to explore the relationship between teacher-led factors, student motivation, and WTC. The primary purpose of this work is to test how students’ perceptions of the 5Ts might predict WTC, and the possible mediating role of learning motivation in the relationship between these two factors. in the hope that the finding would be applicable in a foreign language teaching-learning process.

Literature Review

Willingness to communicate and its relationship with teacher-induced factors

Foreign language classes often include students who lack the desire to communicate in the target language. Working with such students is challenging and time-consuming for many L2 teachers. Willingness to communicate (WTC) is a construct defined by students’ tendency to enter or not to enter into L2 communication when given a free choice (McCroskey & Baer, 1985). According to MacIntyre and Charos (1996), a low level of WTC may be related to several causes, including anxiety, shyness, and low linguistic competence.

Teachers’ activities can help students become more willing to comunicate. In other words, teacher-led factors can affect the WTC construct, and many studies have confirmed this relationship. For instance, Hsu et al. (2007), studying a sample of 335 EFL Taiwanese students, showed a positive relationship between teacher nonverbal immediacy and students’ WTC in English classes. Gol et al. (2014), with a smaller sample of 90 participants in Iranian classrooms, found a similar association not only for teacher nonverbal behaviour but verbal behaviour as well. Recently, working with a much bigger sample of 414 Saudi EFL undergraduates, Alrabai (2022) found that teacher immediacy behaviour only indirectly predicted students’ WTC via communication confidence. This author also found an association between teacher credibility and the students’ WTC. Cai (2021) confirmed the positive correlation between teacher immediacy and student WTC, and also found a link between teacher-student rapport and WTC. The teacher’s frequent use of the target language was another teacher-induced factor found to be a strong predictor of WTC (Dewaele & Dewaele, 2018).

L2 motivational self system and its relationship with WTC

The original L2 Motivational Self System (L2MSS), proposed by Dörnyei (2005), consists of the ideal L2 self, the ought-to L2 self, and the components of L2 learning experience. The ideal L2 self is related to the student’s imagination of the future in which they have become a person fluently using the target language. Through this image, the L2 student can be motivated to achieve language proficiency, fitting the image in the future (Dörnyei & Ryan, 2015). The ought-to self is related to external factors that force the student to learn the L2, such as their friends’ expectations of them to do well in the present L2 course and the respective status of an L2 competent person in the community. Finally, the L2 learning experience relates to the student’s feelings about the learning course, especially the classroom-related aspects.

Researchers can employ all three L2MSS components or fewer in their work. Munezane (2013), for instance, used only the ideal L2 self to study a sample of Japanese EFL students and showed that this motivational construct was a predictor of WTC. Ghanizadeh et al. (2016) found a significant relationship between the ideal L2 self and WTC of the Iranian EFL students. Bursalı and Oz (2017) showed a positive correlation between the ideal L2 self and WTC inside the classroom among Turkish students majoring in English. On the other hand, employing the ideal L2 self and the ought-to L2 self in their work, Shen et al. (2020) found a positive correlation between the ideal L2 self and classroom WTC for Chinese overseas students in the UK university context, while the ought-to L2 self correlated with the classroom WTC only for students not majoring in English, not for their counterparts with English majors. Wei and Xu (2021) indicated that these two components positively related to the WTC of Chinese EFL undergraduates, and the total impact of ideal L2 self was much more intensive than the ought-to L2 self. Ebn-Abbasi et al. (2022) found both of these components positively correlated with the WTC of public school students, while only the ought-to L2 self had a positive correlation with the WTC of private language institute learners.

The teacher-induced 5Ts framework

Teacher emotions, behaviour and teaching activities may affect students’ learning motivation and other constructs directly or indirectly. As a systematical summary of teacher-induced factors in the classroom, the 5Ts framework, introduced by Renandya (2014), consists of five components. They include Teacher, Teaching methodology, Task, Text, and Test. The T first concerns the teacher’s passion towards the target language and behaviour inside the classroom. This component is connected to teacher immediacy and credibility. The second T relates to choosing appropriate teaching methods for the L2 course. The third T refers to task design of the L2 course and how to make it work effectively. The fourth includes the learning materials chosen for the course by the teacher and the student. The last component deals with the student assessment, including participation in classroom activities, project work, and final examinations. Except for the first component, the remaining four are connected to teaching strategy.

Recently, Wang and Lee (2019), building on Renandya (2014), introduced a 20-item questionnaire to investigate the perspectives of both students and teachers on motivational teaching.  The responses from 190 Chinese EFL undergraduates revealed that they would feel motivated when their English teachers implemented the 5Ts framework and ranked the importance of the effects as Teacher > Teaching methods > Task > Text > Test. The survey of 122 Chinese English teachers also found that they believed the 5Ts would motivate students to learn English, but ranked their importance as Task > Teaching methods > Teacher > Text > Test. Apparently, within 20 items adapted by Wang and Lee (2019), the 5Ts cannot reflect every teacher-related aspect intensively. However, this questionnaire appears to be a simple way for an L2 teacher to obtain critical information at any time through the teaching-learning process. Thus, it is worth investigating the influence of the 5Ts framework on other L2 learning constructs, such as motivation and WTC, and a review of the literature reveals no articles on this exact topic. Therefore, this study explored the relationship between the 5Ts, the L2MSS, and WTC to answer the following questions:

(1) Are there any correlations between English-majored students’ perceptions of the 5Ts, the L2MSS, and the WTC?

(2) Does the 5Ts framework play a predictive role for the L2MSS and the WTC?

Hypothesis

This study supposes the following null hypotheses:

(1) English-majored students’ perceptions of the 5Ts framework do not influence the L2MSS and WTC.

(2) The L2MSS is not a mediator in the influence of the 5Ts on WTC.

(3) The 5Ts framework is not a predictor of L2MSS and WTC.

Figure 1: The hypothesized diagram

Methodology

Research design

The present study employed an inferential quantitative research design using an adapted questionnaire to obtain data on English-major students' perceptions of the 5Ts, the L2MSS, and WTC. These quantitative data were used to investigate the relationship between the three factors and whether the 5Ts framework can predict the L2MSS and the WTC factors.

Participants

The participants of this study were English-major students enrolled in the Faculty of Foreign Languages and Oriental Studies of a private university in Vietnam. Second-year students were invited to participate in the study, since they had relatively good competence in English and were the most populous group of students. Of the 59 candidates, 48 students, including 15 males (31.2%) and 33 females (68.8%), voluntarily joined this study. The participants answered a questionnaire in the classroom with no time limitations. Before that, the authors of this work assured them their responses being used only for research purposes.

Instruments

This study used a questionnaire consisting of three parts: the 5Ts framework, the L2 self system, and WTC. Each part used five-point Likert scales, ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). The questionnaire was translated into Vietnamese to ensure a clear understanding. Cronbach’s alpha performance showed the whole questionnaire to reach high scale reliability, α = 0.933. Details of the three parts of the questionnaire are as follows.

5Ts framework

The 5Ts framework scale consists of 20 items, developed by Renandya (2014) and adapted by Wang and Lee (2019). A Cronbach’s alpha of α= 0.848 demonstrated satisfactory scale reliability in this research. Appendix 1 presents the statements and obtained descriptive statistics.

L2 self-system scale

Nineteen items related to L2MSS were taken from Taguchi et al. (2009). A Cronbach’s alpha of α= 0.882 demonstrated satisfactory scale reliability in this research. Appendix 2 presents the statements and obtained descriptive statistics.

Willingness to communicate scale

The current study used a modified version of the WTC in a Foreign Language Scale (WTC-FLS). The original scale, developed by Baghaei (2011), consisted of 20 items. To better suit the Vietnamese context, this work deleted statements 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12 and 20. This investigation also changed the expression “some native speakers of English” into “foreigners who spoke English” in the version delivered to the students. The modified 13-item scale reached high scale reliability, with α = 0.915. Appendix c shows the statements, item mean, and standard deviation of responses.

Analyses

This work conducted analyses including descriptive statistics, Cronbach's alpha scale reliability, Pearson's correlation, simple and multiple regressions, the Sobel test and the PROCESS Procedure for mediation, and the principal component analysis (PCA) for a reduction of factor.

Results

Students’ perceptions of the 5Ts framework, L2self-system, and willingness to communicate

Table 1 below shows descriptive statistics for the participants’ questionnaire responses.

Table 1: Descriptive statistics for follow-up questionnaire scales^a

As shown in Table 1, the mean values of the students’ perceptions of the 5Ts framework, L2MSS and WTC were higher than 3. The mean value for the 5Ts was much higher than that of L2MSS and WTC. The gap between the minimum and maximum for this factor was also narrower than those of the remaining two learning constructs.

Relationship between teacher-induced factor and willingness to communicate

The result in Table 2 shows that the participants’ perceptions of the 5Ts framework positively correlated with the L2MSS and the WTC. All the coefficients were larger than 0.5, meaning a strong correlation. These relationships indicate that increasing one factor will likely cause an increase in the other factor.

Table 2: Pearson correlation analysis results

Predictive role of the 5Ts for WTC and L2MSS

Based on Pearson’s correlation result, this study used the 5Ts to predict WTC and L2MSS. Table 3 shows the results of this regression analysis. As shown in Table 3, students’ perceptions of the 5Ts predicted the WTC learning construct as the p-value was smaller than 0.05 and VIF = 1.000. This predictor accounted for 32% of the variance in the WTC. The 5Ts also played a predictive role for the L2MSS, with a similar accounted variance of 31.4%.

Table 3: Result of regression analysis using 5Ts framework as a predictor

The Sobel test for mediation

The result of the Sobel test (Table 4) indicated that the L2 self-motivational system was a mediator in the influence of the 5Ts framework on the student’s WTC, with a p-value of 0.00489646.

Table 4: The result of Sobel test for L2 self-system as a mediator

The calculation of the point of indirect effect resulted in a value of 0.4913.

As the result of the Sobel test might be questionable because of the relatively small sample size, this study conducted another calculation of the indirect influence of the students’ perceptions of the 5Ts framework on their WTC through L2MSS employing model 4 of the PROCESS Procedure. The result showed a value of indirect effect of 0.4192 (Table 5), almost identical to that of the Sobel test.

Table 5: Indirect effect calculated by the PROCESS procedure

Component reduction performance for the 5Ts scale

This study conducted a principal component analysis (PCA) to reduce the number of items on the 5Ts scale. The result (Table 5) revealed that the remaining three components, with two statements in each, accounted for 77.858% of the variance of the 5Ts. The subsequent correlation and regression performance (Table 6) showed a positive relationship between the PCA 5Ts framework, the L2MSS, and the WTC. The result also showed a predictive role of the PCA 5Ts for the remaining two learning constructs.

Table 6: Principal component analysis (PCA) result for the 5Ts framework

Table 7: Correlation and regression using PCA 5Ts framework

The Sobel test also indicated an indirect effect between the PCA scale of the 5Ts framework and WTC via L2MSS, with a point effect of 0.2656 and a p-value of 0.00898401. An examination by model 4 of the PROCESS Procedure resulted in an indirect effect of 0.2658, as presented in Table 8. This value was very similar to that of the Sobel test.

Table 8: Indirect effect of PCA 5Ts framework on WTC calculated by the PROCESS Procedure

Discussion

As shown in Table 1, the mean of the 5Ts framework was high, 4.39, and the gap between the minimum and maximum was narrow at 1.60. That means most of the participants feel motivated by a teacher who effectively conducts the 5Ts, regardless of their level of L2 self-motivation and WTC. This finding is consistent with a study by Frymier (1993), who, using different teacher-induced factors from the 5Ts, found that students with low or moderate motivation increased this learning construct with a highly immediate teacher, while those with high motivation maintained it regardless of the level of immediacy of their teacher.

The current work found a positive correlation between the students’ perceptions of the 5Ts framework and their L2 motivational self-system. This finding is consistent with many past studies employing different teacher-led variables from the 5Ts, such as those described below. Hsu (2010) concluded that teacher nonverbal behaviours positively related to EFL students’ motivation and suggested that the teacher might use nonverbal expressions such as smiles and gestures to improve English learning motivation. Khajavy et al. (2016) found that the classroom environment directly affected learners’ motivation. Quadir (2021) observed that teachers with poor instructional styles/teaching methods, individual tutoring, personality and behaviour, competence and classroom management, and attitude/commitment negatively affected learners’ motivation , with the extent of effect decreasing from the first to the last. In his review article, Liu (2021) found that the teacher immediacy factor positively correlated with student motivation in most studies.

The positive relationship between L2MSS and WTC uncovered in this study is consistent with previous investigations. Fallah (2014), for example, reported that learning motivation influences learners’ WTC inside the class. Lin (2019) and Dewaele (2019) showed that academic motivation affects EFL students’ WTC to some extent. Many other studies also found that the ideal L2 self-system is strongly associated with WTC (e.g., Rajabpour et al., 2015; Shen et al., 2020; Teimouri, 2017).

The present study found a positive correlation between the 5Ts and students’ WTC and the predictive role of the former for the latter. This finding might imply that the better the teacher implements the 5Ts items (at least those suggested by the PCA-5Ts scale), the higher the students’ WTC will be. It also means the higher the students’ WTC is, the more they feel motivated in their English learning by the teachers’ implementation of the framework. In other words, high WTC students will feel more motivated to study English by the teachers’ 5Ts framework implementation than low WTC ones. Past investigations using other teacher-based factors instead of the 5Ts partly support this conclusion. Dewaele and Dewaele (2018) suggested that teachers can foster learners’ WTC by delivering the teaching activities positively and enjoyably to help students overcome their anxiety, and that frequent classroom use of the target language by the teacher enhances the student’s WTC. Cai (2021) found that teacher-student rapport is associated with with students’ WTC, while teacher immediacy is associated with learners’ communicative readiness. Song et al. (2022) demonstrated that teacher-caring behaviour and teacher-student rapport can predict learners’ WTC in L2 teaching and learning. Peng and Woodrow (2010) discovered that teacher-creating classroom environment predicts students’ WTC. Meanwhile, Sheybani (2019) pointed out another predictor, teacher verbal and nonverbal immediacy.

As the result of the Sobel test for mediation in this study has pointed out, the influence of the 5Ts on learners’ WTC might be direct, and/or indirect through the mediation of the L2 motivational self-system. Other constructs which were not studied here, such as communicative competence, anxiety, enjoyment, and shyness, might mediate this relationship as well. Previous authors’ findings regarding these constructs also lend support this study’s implications. For example, Yu (2009) indicated that teacher immediacy indirectly affected students’ WTC via communication competence. Fallah (2014) also showed a similar influence but through the mediation of learners’ self-confidence and motivation. On the other hand, Alrabai (2022) insisted that teacher immediacy indirectly predicts WTC via only one mediator, communicative confidence, while teacher credibility does so through the meditation of students’ learning motivation and confidence in communication.

The present investigation carried out a principal component analysis (PCA) for the 5Ts scale to reduce the number of components and items. The purpose was to make the framework more applicable for those teachers who want to focus only on the principal factors. As the results showed (Tables 5 and 6), the contracted 5Ts framework consisted of only three components with eight items in this research sample. The PCA 5Ts worked well as the original did, except that it accounted for 77.858% of the variance. This percentage is statistically very high and worth a trial in a virtual course for an L2 teacher who feels interested in this work and is short of time to implement all twenty items.

Pedagogical implications

The present study showed that the teacher-induced 5Ts framework is a strong predictor of WTC and L2MSS of English majors at the Faculty of Foreign Languages and Oriental Studies. This work also revealed the mediating role of the L2MSS in the influence of the 5Ts on WTC. These findings imply that, by improving the 5Ts, a teacher can boost students’ communicative willingness directly and indirectly via the L2 motivational self-system. The performance of the 5Ts also enhances the L2 learners’ motivation, which might result in an improvement of other learning constructs such as students’ autonomy and language achievement (Dicinson, 1995; Dörnyei & Ushioda, 2013), speaking ability (Mengo, 2018), and pragmatic engagement (Alsmari, 2023).

Thus, the 5Ts framework might be a helpful tool to improve the L2 teaching-learning process since it is a simple way to find out what the students require from their teacher. The first step of this procedure is collecting the students’ perceptions of the 5Ts framework and the target learning construct(s), then analyzing the obtained data to choose an appropriate practice. As the findings of the current work indicate, the teacher might fulfil all 20 items of the framework or focus only on the ones which the PCA test found to ccount for most of the variance. As L2 learning variables depend on individual differences and learning context (Henrich et al., 2010), a similar PCA performance of the 5Ts framework on other groups of students may reveal a different result, namely different components and items.

Limitations

Despite its potential application, this study has some limitations. There are inevitable drawbacks associated with convenience sampling. In addition, the three scales used in the questionnaire were self-reported. Therefore, response bias might occur. Another weak spot was the study’s limited number of participants. However, as the study design required English-major undergraduates with a similar level of WTC and learning context, a larger sample size was difficult to obtain.

Conclusion

This article reported on the perceptions of the 5Ts framework, the L2 self-system, and the learning construct of willingness to communicate from Vietnamese undergraduate English majors via descriptive statistics. It also investigated the relationship between these factors. The study concluded that students’ perceptions of the teacher-induced 5Ts framework affect their WTC learning construct directly and indirectly via the L2 motivational self-system. The examination also revealed that the students’ perceptions of the 5Ts framework strongly predicted the students’ WTC.

The findings of this work indicate that the higher the students’ L2 self-motivation, the more intensively the students expect their English language teacher to implement the 5Ts framework and that the better the teacher implements the 5Ts, the higher students’ WTC. Thus, teachers might improve the L2 teaching-learning process by simply surveying their students’ perceptions of the 5Ts framework, the L2 motivational self-system, and the learning construct of willingness to communicate, analyzing these data, finally fulfilling what the analytical results suggest.

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