Introduction

The growth of technology has allowed English teachers worldwide to earn academic degrees and credentials for professional development online (Shin & Kang, 2018). Online teacher professional development (OTPD) can enhance teachers' knowledge, skills, and competencies by providing flexible, low-cost, and extensive options on various topics. By doing OTPD independently, EFL teachers have a chance to learn new skills, stay up to date on new ideas, and work with colleagues (Utami & Prestridge, 2018). This can help them improve their teaching practices and meet the needs of their students more effectively. Furthermore, given the COVID-19 school closures, OTPD can be an ideal solution for teachers to continue their professional development while adapting to online teaching.

In reference to the COVID-19 pandemic, Paesani (2020) reported that understanding what teachers needed for online instruction, such as providing online resources for remote teaching and conducting a workshop related to various digital tools, was urgently needed at the time. Moorhouse et al. (2020) also found that the government requested that teachers be ready to conduct online teaching during school closures. However, this sudden change in teaching mode created an unusual situation whereby schoolteachers needed to provide learning opportunities for their students through online means only, something unfamiliar to many of them (Bai et al., 2019). The government was tasked with helping teachers adopt digital instructional methods. Teachers were encouraged to learn and build professionalism to continuously adapt to changing situations.

Previous studies into teachers’ professional experiences and understanding show that OTPD is still in its infancy (Sharma & Saini, 2022). Research and reflection on the practice of OTPD are also needed; what teachers do and how they manage the complexities of their work are the significant areas that warrant exploration (Wright, 2010). Therefore, the present study seeks to investigate the professional activities of English teachers at various Indonesian senior high schools by drawing on the narrative accounts of their OTPD experiences.

Furthermore, although many studies have been conducted to explore the potential of OTPD and its possible challenges in helping teachers maintain their professional development practice during the COVID-19 pandemic, most of those studies focused on understanding the teachers' perceptions and tools for teacher professional development (TPD). Exploring teachers' experiences using a narrative perspective and predicting their future OTPD based on current practices has yet to be investigated. Drawing on the teachers' narrative accounts can give new insights and provide a deeper reflection of their professional development experiences through the online mode (Barkhuizen & Wette, 2008). Based on this reflection, teachers' future OTPD practices can be predicted by considering their acceptance of the current use of technology in their professional development. One of the recent theories in predicting the acceptance of technology is the unified theory of acceptance and use of technology (UTAUT) model. This model was proposed by Venkatesh et al. (2003), and it has been widely used in the educational research context for various purposes, such as to identify the attitude of users toward the actual use of information and communication technology (ICT) in education (Sharma & Chandel, 2013), to investigate whether the technical skills being taught are learned and used in the classroom (Batane & Ngwalo, 2017), and to predict the adoption of ICT-based instruction in class (Kim & Lee, 2020).

Therefore, the present research explores the nature of OTPD practices in Indonesia by capturing English teachers’ experiences and challenges during the COVID-19 crisis. This study also aims to predict their future OTPD practices based on the current adoption of ICT for TPD. It addresses three main research questions:

1) How did English teachers in Indonesian senior high schools practice and experience their professional work during the outbreak of COVID-19;

2. What are English teachers' challenges in their professional development during the COVID-19 pandemic? and

3) Will the English teachers continue the current OTPD for their future TPD practices?

Literature Review

OTPD in Indonesia: Possibilities and challenges

Online teacher professional development (OTPD) offers a range of possibilities, such as greater flexibility, access to diverse resources, and virtual collaboration. With the rise of pandemic-related restrictions, OTPD has become increasingly popular (Knight, 2020), enabling teachers to maintain social and professional networks across geographic boundaries. Current qualitative findings have shown that conducting OTPD through technological tools brought possibilities for teachers to have virtual collaboration for their professional development, and institutional support was very important to make this collaboration happen (e.g., Hilli, 2020; König et al., 2020). Social media platforms like Twitter, YouTube, and Facebook have been found to facilitate OTPD by enabling teachers to share knowledge, access educational resources, and connect with other educators (Prestridge, 2019). Furthermore, a well-designed professional learning community program in a blended learning environment can help teachers transition from curriculum deliverers to creators (Widodo & Allamnakhrah, 2020). These studies suggest that technological tools offer alternative pathways for teachers to continue their professional development despite the pandemic and can facilitate active engagement in the process.

The benefits of OTPD are widely recognized, but it is also important to consider the challenges that come with it. Different perceptions among teachers regarding OTPD have been reported in previous studies (Johnson, 2001; Matzat, 2013; McConnell et al., 2013; Yurkofsky et al., 2019). While some teachers find OTPD helpful, others prefer face-to-face programs (Parsons et al., 2019). Furthermore, teachers must be digitally literate in order to navigate the online world effectively (Van Nuland et al., 2020). Not all teachers are familiar with the new work environment and may experience stress and confusion (Kim & Asbury, 2020). Distractions can also be challenging when participating in OTPD from home, such as from pets, family members, or telephones (McConnell et al., 2013). Additionally, some teachers are not aware of or well exposed to OTPD as an alternative to improve their professionalism (Parsons et al., 2019).

In the Indonesian context, the most common strategy the government employs is the Training of Trainers (ToT) model. In this program, teachers who have participated successfully train and serve as models for other teachers. However, the ToT model is not as effective as it could be (Flint et al., 2011). Widodo and Riandi (2013) argued that one of the significant challenges the Indonesian education system faces is its archipelagic nature, with over 10,000 islands and many teachers living in isolated regions where transportation and access to schools are problematic, as is the case in Kalimantan Island. As a result, the conventional TPD approach can only be partially implemented in the Indonesian context. Moreover, conventional TPD programs require teachers to leave their schools and students, which can disrupt the learning process. Thus, despite its challenges, OTPD can be an alternative for archipelagic countries.

Predicting the future of OTPD: UTAUT model

To predict whether teachers will continue to use technology in their future practices, it is important to consider their level of acceptance. Many theoretical models can be used to measure this. Kim and Lee (2020) summarized some models such as the Theory of Reasoned Action, the Theory of Planned Behavior, the Technology Acceptance Model, the Motivational Model, and the Innovation Diffusion Theory. These researchers argue that the Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT) is the most comprehensive. With improvements made over previous models, UTAUT provides a reliable framework for measuring teachers' technology acceptance.

The UTAUT model proposed by Venkatesh et al. (2003) consists of five aspects, including performance expectancy, facilitating conditions, effort expectancy, social influence, and behavioral intention. Performance expectancy refers to the degree to which the users believe that using technology will improve their work performance. Facilitating conditions are defined as the degree to which the user believes that technology usage depends on the availability and quality of the infrastructure supporting the technology. Effort expectancy relates to the degree of willingness to use technology because it is easy to learn. Next, social influence relates to the influence of social factors, such as the importance of others in the user's environment, which can affect their decision to adopt and utilize technology. Lastly, behavioral intention is considered the most important element because it influences the user's decision to adopt the technology. This latter element can be used to predict whether the user will sustainably apply the technology for their future OTPD practice. The UTAUT model employed in this study was adapted from Kim and Lee’s (2020) study, with two additional elements: ICTs Usage and Education Policy. These two new elements were considered important since the habits of participants in using technology could affect their technology literacy, and the education policy could affect the teachers’ selection of activities for their professional development.

Method

Research context and participants

A qualitative narrative inquiry design was adopted to examine the participants' stories or own experiences reconstructed in the past, present, and imagined future (Clandinin & Connelly, 2000). This design allowed the researchers to understand the realities of English teachers' professional development in Indonesian senior high schools and explore their experiences in developing their professional work during the COVID-19 pandemic. This design also enabled the participants to engage in long and deep reflection on their own experiences through their personal stories of OTPD during this time. In the narrative frames, the participants described how they developed professionally during a critical situation, the challenges they faced in participating in OTPD programs, and how those experiences continue to shape their personal and professional lives. Gubrium and Holstein (2009) argue that the coherence of a story emerges through narrative linkages to how experience is closely connected with other items: linkage creates a context for understanding.

The English TPD programs aimed to assist the teachers in being more professional, confident, competent, and able to design and teach their English lessons. However, the COVID-19 pandemic created a situation where the program could not run well. The Indonesian government did not allow all educational staff, including English language teachers, to gather in public places and instructed them to start teaching and learning online. Thus, this eventually had implications and challenges for improving English teachers’ quality and expertise.

This study involved five English teachers from five different high schools in South Kalimantan province and Central Kalimantan province, Indonesia. We employed convenience sampling by selecting the participants who were accessible and willing to take part in this study. However, to ensure their relevance to the study objectives, we also set specific inclusion criteria. These English teachers were recruited because (1) they had had professional development experiences in different regions for more than five years and participated in more than three online professional development activities,  and (2) the authors, as researchers, had a close relationship as friends, so it enabled us to gain access and their willingness to participate in the research voluntarily (Barkhuizen et al., 2014). The close relationship between the researchers and the participants helped to easily build rapport during the interview. In this context, the researchers interacted more directly with the participants, establishing rapport, asking questions and follow-up questions, and then clarifying those responses. Thus, the researchers-participants' relationship was more involved, and the researchers had to be careful not to influence the participants’ answers or responses. To make sure that the participants would not feel they were being evaluated or audited for their performance, the researchers in the beginning told the purposes of the study. (Bergen & Labonté, 2020), which were to learn from their stories and to predict the future of OTPD in Indonesia.

There were three districts in South Kalimantan province and two in Central Kalimantan province.. The English teachers and schools were chosen within each district based on the variations in locations, teacher access to digital learning resources, length of the teaching experiences, financing capacity, and other learning supports for TPD. In each school, English teachers taught an English subject in the tenth, eleventh, and twelfth-grade classes, and they were open to participating in this present study. A pseudonym was given to each participant: three females and two males, aged between 30 and 50, with 7 to 16 years of teaching experience. Three teachers taught English at public senior high schools, the others taught at private schools, and their schools were situated in different locations, such as cities, towns, villages, or remote areas.

In this study, the participants shared their stories and experiences of obtaining knowledge, skills, and confidence during the COVID-19 pandemic to encourage and support their profession. Despite the worrying situation, they needed to grow and develop professionally. It is important to note that their past experiences could impact their present and future experiences (Kenyon, 2017). The detailed information of these participants is described in Table 1.

Table 1: Demographic information of the participants

Data collection

Semi-structured interviews were conducted to collect stories and experiences from the participants. The interviewees related their experiences developing and improving their teaching quality and professional development during the COVID-19 pandemic. In the interview process, we asked them 12 questions, which were organized under three themes: 1) English teachers’ professional development practices and experiences during the COVID-19 pandemic, 2) English teachers’ challenges in their professional development; and 3) the continuity of their OTPD in the future (see Appendix 1)..The one-on-one dialogic conversations were guided by semi-structured research questions geared toward understanding their experiences. The study participants were invieted to reconstruct their lived stories regarding OTPD chronologically. Each participant was interviewed once, but some were invited to have a follow-up session because the data gathered previously were insufficient. This follow-up step was necessary to gain in-depth insights into the participants’ understanding and experiences of a phenomenon in their professional development.

Before conducting the interviews, the participants were first contacted via Zoom. They were offered an opportunity to participate in the study, and they were told their participation in the study was voluntary. A negotiation process was required between the researchers and the participants to sustain dialogue and engagement. Both the researchers and the participants were involved in the entire interview process (Widodo, 2015b). In this respect, they were given the power to choose the interview time. After choosing time, they were required to provide input or answers through the interview protocol and followed up by making an appointment via Zoom or telephone. We shared the interview protocol in advance so the participants could prepare their responses during the interview. We did this on purpose to make the interview process more effective, as it was conducted via Zoom or telephone due to the pandemic which prevented face-to-face meetings.

For the virtual interview, the time and venue were flexible according to the participants. Before the interview commenced, each participant was asked for their consent. We used oral informed consent because the data collection was carried out virtually. The participants were told that the Zoom meeting would be recorded, but they could choose not to be recorded. In addition, the participants were offered the choice to give written informed consent. However, none asked for it, so the oral informed consent was sufficient.

The communication was in the Indonesian language, which was the participants' first language, in order to make the interviewer and the participants closer, and the participants relaxed during the interview. The duration of the interviews ranged between 30 to 60 minutes. All interviews were audio-recorded, transcribed in Indonesian, and translated into English. Widodo (2015a) argued that in transcribing, researchers should listen carefully and repetitively to make the data obtained more accurate and precise. The transcription was vital in representing, analyzing, and interpreting recorded voice data.

Afterwards, the participants involved in the interview received a copy of their initial interview transcriptions. It was used in member checking to confirm and clarify or even provide an additional comment to convey the interviewees’ intended meanings correctly and accurately. In the interview data, we identified the themes from participants' interviews related to their real stories and experiences in professional development during the COVID-19 outbreak.

Data analysis

A qualitative inductive thematic analysis, based on the interview, was employed in this study to ensure the findings were based on the obtained data. In each interview, the teachers' stories and experiences in Indonesia in their learning and professional development was noted. Three potential themes were identified, coded, and categorized for each story and experience associated with the thematic headings. Van Manen (1990) argued that particular themes, the writing process, and the transcription of the interview were done to seek the true meaning of each experience. Riessman (2007) defines thematic narrative analysis as "the told" events and cognitions related to participants' language or content of their speech and focuses on the "what" of the stories in common parts. The events referred to in this study were associated with the English teachers' stories and experiences about how they grew and developed professionally during the COVID-19 pandemic. The transcribed interviews were carefully reviewed and coded by the five researchers. These codes were then grouped into categories, from which themes were inductively developed through iterative discussion among the research team. The sample of data analysis is shown in Table 2.

Table 2: Sample of data analysis

Findings

English Teachers' practices and experiences of professional development during the COVID-19 pandemic

Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, the Indonesian government and non-government schools, including senior high schools, were physically closed by the Indonesian government in March 2020. All teaching staff, including English teachers at senior high schools, were forced to shift from face-to-face teaching to online teaching. In the beginning, most of them were unfamiliar with digital tools for online teaching and learning; this transition affected how they prepared their lesson plans and their teaching and evaluated students' progress. Therefore, English teachers at senior high schools had to be equipped with new knowledge and skills in using digital platforms to teach well and help their students achieve their desired results. In this respect, support from the Department of Education, the local community involvement of the English teachers’ association, and other relevant stakeholders was required to help them understand and fulfil their professional development (PD) needs during the COVID-19 outbreak.

The English teachers’ efforts in response to the pandemic were through engaging in learning opportunities, such as joining formal workshops, webinars, and conferences, creating a mentorship program, and participating in self-directed informal learning activities. The Department of Education and the local community organized in-person and virtual workshops or training sessions to teach educators how to use online tools and digital platforms effectively. English teachers were invited to participate actively in the programs to gain new knowledge, skills, and awareness and also prepare English teachers to be confident and competent in teaching English through online classes during the COVID-19 pandemic. The English teachers who were interviewed believed that the efforts of the Department of Education and the local community of English teachers were essential in helping them modify their teaching practices and improve their professional development during the COVID-19 situation.

The professional development programs offered by the Department of Education and the local community involvement of English teachers in specific situations were important to continue learning in difficult situations. For the first time, I was invited to participate in online workshops aimed at teaching participants how to design and utilize teaching platforms, such as Google Classroom and WhatsApp groups, specifically for online classes. These workshops proved to be immensely beneficial as they equipped me with the necessary skills to teach effectively. By the end of the workshops, I felt confident and competent in delivering English lessons through online classes, despite initially feeling unfamiliar with the technology. (Aida, interview via Zoom, 25 April 2021)

Although I lived in the village and taught at an isolated school, I often got an invitation from the Department of Education and the local community of English teachers to participate actively in the online workshop. I was very happy because I gained valuable knowledge and skills from these programs. I was trained and guided in online classes to practice creative online learning media, such as Kahoot and Quizizz. Actually, I had no experience adopting it at all, but I tried hard to learn and understand it, and finally, I could practice it for my online teaching in the time of the COVID-19 pandemic. (Sapto, interview via Zoom, 25 April 2021)

The teachers quoted above clearly benefitted from the virtual workshops. Nevertheless, more was needed to address TPD needs. The Department of Education also provided additional on-site training or face-to-face programs to increase the English teachers' professional development competencies while adhering to the health protocols issued by the Ministry of Health in Indonesia. The in-person training was conducted after the online workshops to engage the English teachers further in the professional development programs. Despite the COVID-19 pandemic, the English teachers found the on-site training more engaging than the online workshops, allowing them to ask direct questions to trainers and discuss and share knowledge with other participants. They found it both useful and meaningful practice. However, it should be noted that participating in this program required a significant time commitment of around 32 hours, or three days. They not only invested their personal time, but also had to adhere to the public health requirements of the pandemic. One English teacher stated in the interview:

I participated in an offline training from the Department of Education in October about creative and innovative online teaching strategies, but I had to follow the rule of the program, such as wearing a mask, washing hands, and maintaining physical distance during the pandemic, so it was safe. Well..., I was invited by this institution to continue the online professional development program that I ever joined. I got more engaged in the offline workshop than in the online workshop because if I did not understand the learned topic, I could ask directly to the trainers and discuss it with other participants. Even though the arranged time was 32 hours or three days to participate, I thought it was useful because I learned a lot for my professional career. (Wina, interview via Zoom, 25 April 2021)

Most of the participants in this study agreed that taking part in the face-to-face programs for TPD was much needed, despite the pandemic. One of the participants in the interview seemed to sum up the others' opinions:

Even though the spread of coronavirus increased dramatically in Indonesia, I supposed face-to-face learning was needed so much. When we participated in the offline workshops, I felt more engaged with their delivered content and learning materials than in online training. Moreover, I could engage directly with the instructors in real-time without having space and time and had a greater chance to ask some questions. (Atun, interview via Zoom, 26 April 2021)

Providing effective professional development and support to the English teachers, in this case, was considered important to maintain a highly knowledgeable, skillful, and capable teaching profession that could positively impact the educational outcomes of the students.

These English teachers had a heightened awareness and willingness to learn by taking the initiative to find other resources to improve their teaching. A great variety of professional support was available to the English teachers, including online webinars, a mentoring program and videos on YouTube. Most of the participants actively participated in learning from these other resources, in addition to the TPD programs from the government. They chose to participate actively in these sustained professional developments and support, even though the programs were not free. They believed that continuous support of TPD was also effective and hugely influential on their teaching practices. As English teachers, the participants highlighted the importance of commitment to continuing learning from various professional development activities. Aida and Ihsan reported the following:

I invested efforts and money to develop and improve my professionalism by joining some online webinars. The most important thing for me was to keep learning more from other learning resources so that I could fulfill my professional needs and make an impact on the teaching practice during the COVID-19 pandemic. (Aida, interview via Zoom, 25 April 2021)

Learning in online webinars and YouTube media was one of the best options to develop professionally as an English teacher. I ever individually participated in online webinars more than three times which Indonesian universities held on via Zoom meetings. Another was learning videos on YouTube that led me to learn more about virtual teaching practice. Those were effective and beneficial because I gained knowledge, skills, and confidence in my online teaching practice. (Ihsan, interview via Zoom, 23 April 2021)

Some English teachers in certain regions initiated a mentoring program to support and enhance teaching competencies in difficult situations. This program was supported by schools and the local community of English teachers and aimed to guide and coach other English teachers through various in-person and online activities. For example, one of the coaching programs addressed the use of technology in online teaching practices and another responded to school-based curriculum reform implementation. This program was informal, one English teacher volunteered to be a mentor for other English teachers in the schools. The mentor had valuable experience and expertise in a particular area, which they could share with others. One participant described the importance of this mentoring program to improve English teachers' competence and confidence, especially during the COVID-19 pandemic. This is an excerpt from that interview:

A mentoring program initiated by some English teachers in my region provided other English teachers and me with a learning space to ask, discuss and practice current issues of technology usage in teaching English or school-based curriculum implementation. I had the opportunity to participate in an informal program facilitated by a knowledgeable and skilled mentor, from whom I gleaned valuable insights. Despite the flexible nature of the mentoring schedule, which varied between bi-weekly or monthly sessions, myself [sic] and fellow English teachers remained actively engaged. We received coaching, guidance, and practical demonstrations on effectively utilizing digital platforms, such as in the context of conducting online classes. Moreover, I got constructive and encouraging comments or feedback if my teaching practice needed to be corrected, so I felt confident teaching English to my students. (Ihsan, interview via Zoom, 25 April 2021)

Surprisingly, two participants from this study had attended an international conference that focused on teaching English during the COVID-19 pandemic. They even presented their research findings at the event. According to them, the conference was beneficial as it allowed them to develop global networks, interact with other international participants, and share new knowledge and skills. They felt the conference helped them grow in their personal and professional understanding.

Joining the international conference could add to my knowledge and valuable experiences. I presented my paper at this event to explore my expertise and get much input or valuable comments from international experts. My professional development developed and improved well. (Aida, interview via Zoom, 25 April 2021)

My friend and I once took part in an international conference in India. We presented our research papers to overseas participants and learned from them how to teach English well in this situation. Thus, we acquired a lot of new insights and knowledge from them. New knowledge, insight, and skills we got could be adapted and implemented in my online teaching. (Atun, interview via Zoom, 23 April 2021)

English teachers' challenges in professional development during the COVID-19 pandemic

The narratives of the English teachers revealed that the participants in this study faced challenges such as limited internet access, unreliable electricity supply, and lack of family support. However, the biggest challenge faced by all the participants was a slow or non-existent internet connection. They reported that this hindered their engagement, participation, and motivation during online professional learning activities. Therefore, internet access was crucial for their active participation in the professional development program offered by the Department of Education, the local community of English teachers, and other supportive educators in the regions. One of the English teachers reported in the interview:

Internet connection speed was essential for me to engage actively with online TPD programs; sometimes, we had a poor internet connection in my area although I live in a town. Thus, I needed more motivation to keep learning because I often missed the important points delivered by the trainers or instructors. (Wina, interview via Zoom, 23 April 2021)

In addition, for those who lived and taught English in the villages or remote areas, the main problems they encountered were access to broadband internet service and a need for more electricity in their villages. As part of this study, an English teacher recounted her personal experience during OTPD programs:

Actively engaging in online workshops and training to foster my professional development presented considerable challenges due to the absence of a reliable internet connection in my rural area. Moreover, the scarcity of electric power further exacerbated the difficulties I faced. In my village, I just got electricity from the government from 4 pm to 6 am. Faced with these problems, I used to go to my family or friends' houses or the city or town where the internet connection and electricity facilities were available and easy to access. (Wina, interview via Zoom, 23 April 2021)

A lack of family support was also a problem for the English teachers in this study. Two teachers experienced this issue while participating in face-to-face and online TPD programs. Their family members complained that the webinars or workshops, mostly on weekends, were too time-consuming. They believed spending quality time together as a family on weekends was more important than joining the TPD programs. As a result, the teachers found it difficult to focus on the TPD activities since they were trying to learn while also being distracted by family responsibilities. Ihsan and Atun expressed their feelings regarding this issue in the following excerpts:

Participating in online workshops from my home presented challenges in maintaining a balanced family environment. The considerable time commitment of these webinars or workshops, spanning around four to five hours per day, had an impact on our quality time together and disrupted our usual family routines. (Ihsan, interview via Zoom, 23 April 2021)

Honestly, I could not concentrate fully on TPD activities because my children always distracted me from learning the online webinar or workshop at home, and they invited me to do other activities. So, I missed the important points presented by the instructors. (Atun, interview via Zoom, 23 April 2021)

Projecting the possibility for English teachers’ OTPD based on their adoption of technology

The UTAUT model employed in this study was adapted from Kim and Lee's (2020) study, with two elements added: ICTs Usage Habit and Education Policy. These two new elements were considered important, as participants' technology usage habits affect their computer literacy, and education policy can affect the way teachers select activities for their professional development. In the following section, we present every element of the UTAUT model through a narrative lens and support it with the interpretation of the data.

First, facilitating conditions are essential in supporting and encouraging active participation in OTPD. However, access inequality among teachers and schools became a crucial issue, particularly for English teachers living in isolated areas. Many needed help following OTPD activities programmed by the government or other institutions. The unique conditions of each English teacher and school were reflected in the various types of remote learning available. English teachers living in towns or cities had no issues participating in OTPD programs because before the pandemic their districts and schools had equipped them with high-speed internet access, electricity supply, and devices like iPads and laptops. This technology allows for smooth OTPD programs. In contrast, teachers living in remote areas needed help with the infrastructure to support their OTPD. They could not join online TPD programs or access materials that supported their online learning. Thus, they thought that the TPD programs would be better if they were designed in a blended form. The following excerpt represents this idea from one participant's story.

I could not join online TPD because the areas and the school where I lived and taught needed to provide me with internet and technology facilities. Without being facilitated with reliable online connections, digital tools, and other technological devices, I felt impeded in developing my knowledge and expertise. The TPD offered by the government should be carried out both online and offline or on the site following health protocols. (Sapto, interview via Zoom, 25 April 2021)

Second, performance expectancy is related to using a specific digital technology to improve teachers' continuous professional learning during the pandemic. At the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic, all teachers were required to adopt digital technologies to teach online. After adjusting to the use of the technology, the participants reported that the available platforms helped them make the learning process much more appealing. For instance, they learned to use Google Classroom, created Google Classroom and Google Form, taught using WhatsApp and Zoom, and joined online workshops or webinars. When teachers were allowed to participate in OTPD programs, they engaged in rich, interactive experiences that expanded their knowledge and informed them of different ways to enhance their performance in mentoring their colleagues and instructing their students in class. As time passed, the teachers believed they could better recognize their students' needs and tailor their teaching methods accordingly. The use of technology helped them to teach in a new way. This quote by Sapto supports this finding.

In the past, I was stuttering to use technology in teaching. Now in the era of digitalization, I finally learned to use technology facilitated by the MGMP (a local teachers’ forum), such as learning to use Google Classroom, making Google Classroom and Google Sheet-based questions online, and teaching using WA and Zoom. As a high school teacher in a rural area, I feel proud that I can teach my students and my colleagues to use technology in teaching. At first, we were forced to use technology in order to be able to teach the students to survive the process of learning during the COVID-19 period. Ultimately, teaching using technology can impress my students so their teacher can better motivate them to learn. (Sapto, interview via Zoom, 25 April 2021)

Third, effort expectancy is an individual's willingness to accept digital technology, based not only on the perceived benefits but also on its ease of use. With adequate technology and infrastructure, moving to online learning is not difficult. Remote and underserved areas require adequate bandwidth and technology for educational opportunities. However, as has been mentioned above, in many remote areas, reliable broadband, cellular service, and electricity are scarce, making it difficult for teachers to access OTPD. Higher-speed internet and electrical power are essential for teachers to connect with online apps, as teachers need them to participate in OTPD training and workshops in their districts. The pandemic made them aware that TPD could be carried out from home. They felt that this kind of TPD was quite flexible for them. However, some English teachers felt that the shift from in-person to online TPD was quite challenging, especially when using new apps like Zoom. Although it was easy to learn the features of this online conferencing tool, other supporting facilities, such as an internet connection, frequently impeded communication. Wina, one of the participants, shared her story during the interview.

Actively engaging in online workshops and training to foster my professional development presented considerable challenges due to the absence of a reliable internet connection in my rural area. Moreover, the scarcity of electric power further exacerbated the difficulties I faced. In my village, I just got electricity from the government from 4 pm to 6 am. Faced with these problems, I used to go to my family or friends' houses or the city or town where the internet connection and electricity facilities were available and easy to access. (Wina, interview via Zoom, 23 April 2021)

Fourth, social influence, as part of the social environment (SE) element, positively impacted the teachers' intentions to adopt technology during and after the pandemic. Therefore, teachers were required to actively engage within their school communities as well as with the external educational environment. Colleagues with good ICT skills and professional experience in technology adoption were very helpful during and after the pandemic. They were able to guide and teach other teachers about using digital platforms and tools during and after the lockdown. Moreover, teachers' local forums provide a platform for teachers to share their problems and challenges during the pandemic and learn from one another. This idea is expressed in the following excerpt from Zaini, one of the participants.

In our school, we have one teacher who is good at ICT. We asked him to teach us. It was very helpful in improving our skills. Besides, the MGMP (the teachers' local forum) also conducted 3-4 Zoom meetings during the pandemic, facilitating us to learn. (Zaini, interview via Zoom, 28 April 2021)

Fifth, the education policy aspect is closely connected to the government policy to support, manage, and provide TPD training and workshops during and after the COVID-19 outbreak. The OTPD issue required significant attention from the government during the pandemic, especially the Department of Education. To provide successful online programs and instruction, the government issued helpful policies and continued to offer support throughout the lockdown.English teachers, in particular, required a more practical policy from the government during the shift to online learning because language instruction relies heavily on interaction, communication, and active student engagement—elements that are more challenging to achieve in virtual settings (Ardiningsih, et al., 2023). Unlike other subjects that might depend on content delivery or problem-solving, teaching English effectively requires tools and strategies for speaking, listening, and collaborative practice. General ICT training was insufficient; the government should provide practical workshops on using technology to teach grammar, writing, reading, speaking, and listening skills, which, which would have better prepared English teachers to adapt their methods to the online environment.

English teachers lacking technical proficiency needed to acquire the skills to conduct online instruction using modern technology, alongside enhancing their pedagogical abilities and expertise to support students in overcoming the learning setbacks caused by the pandemic. By improving their teaching skills, they could practice their newly acquired techniques and provide feedback to students more effectively. One of the participants revealed in the interview:

The policy implemented by the government was helpful and supportive. In particular, the education sector provided online training programs that covered crucial aspects required to develop our competence in effective online teaching. These programs equipped us with the necessary skills and knowledge to teach effectively in an online environment. Thus, we took more effective advantage of this form of professional development. (Aida, interview via Zoom, 28 April 2021)

Sixth, the development of ICT usage habits among teachers depends on their familiarity with a given technology, which develops gradually over time. During the COVID-19 pandemic, teachers' levels of internet usage varied depending on their use of online technologies, as there was a transition from offline to online learning modes. Participants in this study living in urban areas showed greater familiarity with ICT and had better internet usage habits than those living in remote districts. This difference could be attributed to various factors, such as a lack of facilitating conditions, individual behavior, and prior experience with ICT. Depending on the context, these factors can positively or negatively impact their future teaching performance. Not all participants had prior experience with educational technology and received training in creating educational videos or apps for teaching. However, they could have implemented those educational media more frequently in the classroom. Since they needed to teach online, they were forced to recall their knowledge of using technology for teaching. They also needed to adopt technology as a part of the teaching media. This finding is represented as follows.

Previously, our school provided us with training on creating videos and apps for teaching. However, after the training, I only occasionally applied that media in my classroom since I felt comfortable with my conventional teaching method. Because of COVID-19, training is important and useful for supporting my online class. Now, I know how to use it for teaching. (Ihsan, interview via Zoom, 28 April 2021)

Lastly, the behavioral intention to use technology showed that the participants were willing to use technology in the future. In this case, they showed an interest in adopting technology after following the OTPD training provided by the government and the teachers’ forums. Through OTPD activities, they were introduced to various new digital platforms and received guidance from mentors on how to implement them in online classes. They were enthusiastic about the OTPD program and believed it was useful for updating their knowledge, skills, and competence in teaching. The findings suggest that the participants' intention to use ICT was positively influenced by the four elements of performance expectancy, effort expectancy, social influence, and education policy. An analysis of the findings shows that most participants gained positive perspectives, making them willing to adopt ICT for their future practice. In her interview, one of the participants, Atun, expressed that she still wanted to join OTPD, especially to learn to teach using technology.

Inshaa Allah, even though the COVID-19 pandemic is over, I will still participate in OTPD if time allows. Because much new knowledge, especially about teaching using technology, is very helpful. Sometimes there is much information from outside that we may not know, especially since technology is always developing rapidly. Thank God the school's Wi-Fi runs smoothly so that it can be used for online training. In addition, the school is very supportive. On the other hand, students need online learning in the future. (Atun, interview via Zoom, 28 April 2021)

Thus, the findings above reported that teachers in almost all UTAUT model elements showed positive attitudes toward the OTPD practice, except for the facilitating conditions. Their ICT usage habits also changed. Previously, they were reluctant to adopt some ideas from educational media training because they already felt comfortable with their conventional teaching media. However, COVID-19 made them aware that those media were helpful, so integrating ICT and learning digital teaching media was necessary for helping their students to learn. Positive attitudes toward those UTAUT elements (performance expectancy, social influence. Effort expectancy, educational policy, & internet usage habits) lead to a positive attitude toward behavioral intentions. From this, we can predict that those teachers will most likely adopt the current practice for their future TPD (Kim & Lee, 2020). However, it should be highlighted that the form of future OTPD should consider the facilitating conditions. Those areas lacking internet connection or limited sources of electricity should consider another type of OTPD.

Discussion

The present research findings align with previous research suggesting that the role of institutions or organizations such as schools and the Department of Education is fundamental in supporting teachers' readiness to deal with the sudden transition from in-person to online teaching and learning (Howard et al., 2020; Moorhouse et al., 2021). Policymakers and school leaders should prepare teachers to adapt to new teaching arrangements, although the COVID-19 pandemic has ended, the shift to online and hybrid learning modes is likely to persist, making it essential to sustain support for teachers in adapting to these ongoing instructional approaches (Darling-Hammond & Hyler, 2020).

The participants' stories in this study revealed that joining online or face-to-face workshops played a pivotal role in shaping their understanding of digital tools. It helped them to be more confident and competent in teaching English in their online classes. It also made their class more interesting and enjoyable for the students. Guskey (2002) argued that an effective teacher professional development program should promote changes in teachers' classroom practices, eventually improving students' learning outcomes. From our interviews, we can highlight the words "coached or trained and guided" as fundamental in designing a teacher's professional development program, especially regarding the use of technology. Sometimes, teachers complained that the webinars or workshops they attended were more about making or using the tools. Some trainers presented the learning materials without good practice or guidance during the program, which made the teachers less engaged (Cirocki & Farrell, 2019). Widodo and Allamnakhrah (2020) recommended that a professional development program activity be structured professionally to enable the program to promote changes in participant practices.

As shown by the data, the teachers believed that they had to continuously develop their pedagogical abilities and familiarize themselves with new applications and platforms for online learning. They believed that the online learning provided by the government was not sufficient. They still needed face-to-face training to prepare for teaching an online class. This is in line with Abaci et al.’s (2020) study, which showed that online blended learning is not enough to prepare teachers to use technology in teaching. They also learned from online sources such as YouTube or other free websites on the internet. By educating themselves in effective online teaching practices, these English teachers believed that they were fulfilling the students' and parents' needs for a good quality education (Ellis et al., 2020).

Furthermore, the participants emphasized the benefits of attending international conferences, allowing them to connect with other educators abroad and share experiences with fellow attendees and presenters. This is consistent with König et al.'s (2020) assertion that the success of teacher professional development during the pandemic was determined by the ability to connect with other teachers and learn from their successes. By listening to their colleagues' classroom challenges and solutions, the participants gained new insights they could apply to their own teaching practices.

Most TPD programs in the Indonesian context, including workshops, training, and webinars, were conducted virtually due to the pandemic. However, transitioning to online attendance was challenging for many English teachers. They often needed help conducting online learning or actively participating in professional development activities due to poor internet connections and infrastructure, particularly in rural or remote areas. These challenges affected their motivation and engagement with the programs. For an effective transition to online modes of TPD programs, readiness, in terms of reliable internet, technological devices, and infrastructure that support access to virtual events, is crucial (Adedoyin & Soykan, 2020; Van Nuland et al., 2020). Teachers need those basic components to engage in OTPD programs

Our research findings suggest that many English teachers expect their internet problem to be solved and facilities built by the government because those are crucial aspects for Indonesia to develop and enhance English teachers’ teaching competencies and practices during and after the COVID-19 pandemic. In addition, family support also plays an important role in following professional development programs, as some teachers lack professional support for continuous learning and may be distracted by family members during online activities. The professional development programs may also take up their family time on weekends, leading to disapproval from their families and hindering their participation. This finding is consistent with Caffarella and Zinn’s study (1999), which shows that family disapproval is a significant obstacle to teachers’ participation in professional development programs. Therefore, it is crucial to implement these programs so that they do not encroach on family time.

All these findings match the UTAUT model for predicting the possibility of adopting ICT. Policymakers and school leaders are related to the educational policy element, which encourages teachers to continuously join OTPD because of programs mandated by the school and governments. Joining a community of practice, such as a local teachers’ forum, or sharing with colleagues who belong to, may motivate teachers to pursue OTPD because they have friends to learn from. Participants' statements that engaging in OTPD helped them be more confident and competent in teaching English reflected the performance expectancy and effort expectancy elements. Next, the participants’ willingness to learn new teaching apps during the OTPD showed a change in their IUH. Suggestions for the improvement of supporting technology infrastructures disclosed the participants’ needs for the support of facilitating conditions. The participants' attitudes toward those elements lead us to believe that they welcome OTPD for their future TPD.

Conclusion and Implications of the Study

The present research suggests that teachers’ professional development (TPD) begun during the COVID-19 pandemic is still needed to improve their knowledge, competencies, and teaching skills. The teachers in the present study, for example, believed that TPD was essential for fulfilling their teaching needs at that critical time, although they encountered various challenges, such as no internet access or a poor internet connection, a lack of electricity for those living in villages, and the absence of family support. Therefore, establishing information and communication technology (ICT) and village electricity infrastructure is pivotal in developing professionalism for English teachers. Indonesia needs better capacity building, such as providing internet access to all regions to benefit from online TPD. Widodo and Riandi (2013) recommend that the government invest in ICT and electricity infrastructures to develop teacher education in Indonesia. In this case, the Department of Education and the local community have attempted to provide opportunities for English teachers to learn and use online teaching during the COVID-19 outbreak. The Department of Education and the local community conducted online workshops and training. In addition, they advised English teachers to learn from various sources, such as webinars, conferences, a mentorship program, and self-directed informal learning activities to acquire knowledge, skills, and teaching competencies in online teaching. Now, after the pandemic, the trend to OTPD might continue into the future, especially since many teachers have become more familiar with this professional development program model. In addition, now the government should give more incentives or rewards to teachers who join TPD, e.g., paying for conferences and workshops.

In accordance with the Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT) model, this study offers implications for the design of future Online teacher professional development (OTPD). First, in designing OTPD, it is crucial to see the available supporting facilities, such as infrastructure. The facilitating conditions directly connect to behavioral intentions. The absence of facilitating conditions can hinder teachers from joining an OTPD because of limitations in accessing the materials and fully participating in the programs. In such cases, blended TPD can be offered, but a needs analysis is necessary before designing an OTPD program regarding the facilities. Second, the selection of topics, tools, and activities should be based on the teachers’ immediate needs. The more useful the materials are, the more motivated the participants would be to complete the programs, as they would expect to gain benefits in terms of performance and effort expectancy. Training in the use of digital tools is critical to ensure that the participants can employ them after the OTPD.

Moreover, to build habits of using ICT, the OTPD participants should be familiar with the technology and feel that it is easy to use. Last, the design of OTPD should enable interaction among participants so as not to feel isolated while learning. It can be facilitated by designing the OTPD involving a community of individuals supporting each other to complete the program. Additionally, a supervisor, such as a school headmaster, can be considered so that teachers feel that the OTPD is managed and acknowledged by their institution.

The present study has some limitations. First, although the narrative frame can showcase the participants' professional experiences during the COVID-19 pandemic, some critical themes, such as how they coped with different challenges in their different work and regions, require further investigation by capturing different perspectives through follow-up interviews. The narrative framework should present a viewpoint that reflects participants' engagement in their professional practice as English teachers, serving as a source of lived experiential data. Therefore, further studies recommend that other scholars/researchers conduct in-depth interviews and observations in the field to generate more insights into TPD lives. Moreover, future TPD programs are also expected to be designed professionally to meet those teachers' needs for improving their teaching practice. TPD programs can be designed flexibly by combining online and offline modes to give teachers more opportunities to learn and practice. School and local community teachers are also advised to arrange a weekly TPD program to avoid interfering with their family schedules. Another limitation is that the participants in this study were experienced in online professional development and had participated in multiple online PD programs prior to this research. Therefore, their perspectives may be biased toward a more familiar stance on the use of technology in PD contexts, which may not fully represent the views of teachers with less or no prior online PD experience.

The findings reveal a strong interest among English teachers in integrating ICT into their ongoing professional development, indicating a positive shift toward digital learning opportunities. Despite facing considerable challenges, including limited internet access, lack of electricity in rural areas, and insufficient family support, English teachers recognized the value of PD in addressing their instructional needs during the crisis. Sustained and accessible TPD is crucial for enhancing their teaching knowledge, skills, and overall effectiveness.

Acknowledgement

This study was funded by Beasiswa Pendidikan Indonesia (BPI) scholarship through the Centre for Higher Education Funding and Assessment (PPAPT) of the Ministry of Higher Education, Science, and Technology and the Indonesia Endowment Fund for Education Agency (LPDP) of the Ministry of Finance, The Republic of Indonesia. The authors would like to thank Prof. Utami Widiati, who provided thorough feedback on this manuscript. The authors also thank all those involved in this study.

References

Adedoyin, O. B., & Soykan, E. (2020). COVID-19 pandemic and online learning: The challenges and opportunities. Interactive Learning Environments, 31(2), 863-875. https://doi.org/10.1080/10494820.2020.1813180

Abaci, S., Robertson, J., Linklater, H., & McNeill, F. (2020). Supporting school teachers' rapid engagement with online education. Educational Technology Research and Development, 69, 29-34. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11423-020-09839-5

Ardiningsih, S., Yusra, K., & Muhaimi, L. (2023). English teacher’s responses to the government’s policy on online learning activities during Covid-19 pandemic: A case study at SMPN 2 Mataram. In SHS Web of Conferences, 173. https://doi.org/10.1051/shsconf/202317304002

Bai, B., Wang, J., & Chai, C.-S. (2019). Understanding Hong Kong primary school English teachers’ continuance intention to teach with ICT. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 34(4), 528-551. https://doi.org/10.1080/09588221.2019.1627459

Barkhuizen, G., & Wette, R. (2008). Narrative frames for investigating the experiences of language teachers. System, 36(3), 372-387. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2008.02.002

Barkhuizen, G., Benson, P., & Chik, A. (2014). Narrative inquiry in language teaching and learning research. Routledge.

Batane, T., & Ngwalo, A. (2017). Technology use by pre-service teachers during teaching practice: Are new teachers embracing technology right away in their first teaching experience? Australasian Journal of Educational Technology, 33(1), 48–61. https://doi.org/10.14742/ajet.2299

Bergen, N., & Labonté, R. (2020). “Everything is perfect, and we have no problems:” Detecting and limiting social desirability bias in qualitative research. Qualitative Health Research, 30(5), 783-792. https://doi.org/10.1177/1049732319889354

Caffarella, R. S., & Zinn, L. F. (1999). Professional development for faculty: A conceptual framework of barriers and supports. Innovative Higher Education, 23(4), 241-254. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1022978806131

Cirocki, A., & Farrell, T. S. C. (2019). Professional development of secondary school EFL teachers: Voices from Indonesia. System, 85. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2019.102111

Clandinin, D. J., & Connelly, F. M. (2000). Narrative inquiry: Experience and story in qualitative research. Jossey-Bass.

Darling-Hammond, L., & Hyler, M. E. (2020). Preparing educators for the time of COVID…and beyond. European Journal of Teacher Education, 43(4), 457–465. https://doi.org/10.1080/02619768.2020.1816961

Ellis, V., Steadman, S., & Mao, Q. (2020). ‘Come to a screeching halt’: Can change in teacher education during the COVID-19 pandemic be seen as innovation? Journal of Education for Teaching, 43(4), 559–572. https://doi.org/10.1080/02619768.2020.1821186

Flint, A. S., Zisook, K., & Fisher, T. R. (2011). Not a one-shot deal: Generative professional development among experienced teachers. Teaching and Teacher Education, 27(8), 1163-1169. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2011.05.009

Guskey, T. R. (2002). Professional development and teacher change. Teachers and Teaching: Theory and Practice, 8(3), 381–391 https://doi.org/10.1080/135406002100000512

Gubrium, J. F., & J. A. Holstein. (2009). Analyzing narrative reality. Sage

Hilli, C. (2020). Extending classrooms through teacher collaboration in virtual learning environments. Educational Action Research, 28(4), 700–715. https://doi.org/10.1080/09650792.2019.1654901

Howard, S. K., Tondeur, J., Siddiq, F., & Scherer, R. (2021). Ready, set, go! Profiling teachers' readiness for online teaching in secondary education. Technology, Pedagogy, and Education, 30(1), 141-158. https://doi.org/10.1080/1475939X.2020.1839543

Johnson, C. M. (2001). A survey of current research on online communities of practice. Internet and Higher Education, 4(1), 45–60. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1096-7516(01)00047-1

Kenyon, E. A. (2017). Lived experience and the ideologies of preservice social studies teachers. Teaching and Teacher Education, 61, 94-103. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2016.10.006

Kim, J., & Lee, K. S. (2020). A conceptual model to predict Filipino teachers' adoption of ICT-based instruction in class: Using the UTAUT model. Asia Pacific Journal of Education, 42(4) 699-713. https://doi.org/10.1080/02188791.2020.1776213

Kim, L. E., & Asbury, K. (2020). 'Like a rug had been pulled from under you': The impact of COVID-19 on teachers in England during the first six weeks of the UK lockdown. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 90(4), 1062–1083. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjep.12381

Knight, S. W. P. (2020). Establishing professional online communities for world language educators. Foreign Language Annals, 53(2), 298–305. https://doi.org/10.1111/flan.12458

König, J., Jäger-Biela, D. J., & Glutsch, N. (2020). Adapting to online teaching during COVID-19 school closure: Teacher education and teacher competence effects among early career teachers in Germany. European Journal of Teacher Education, 43(4), 608–622. https://doi.org/10.1080/02619768.2020.1809650

Matzat, U. (2013). Do blended virtual learning communities enhance teachers' professional development more than purely virtual ones? A large-scale empirical comparison. Computers and Education, 60(1), 40–51. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2012.08.006

McConnell, T. J., Parker, J. M., Eberhardt, J., Koehler, M. J., & Lundeberg, M. A. (2013). Virtual professional learning communities: Teachers' perceptions of virtual versus face-to-face professional development. Journal of Science Education and Technology, 22(3), 267–227. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10956-012-9391-y

Moorhouse, B. L., Lee, J., & Herd, S. (2021). Providing remote school-based professional support to teachers during school closures caused by the COVID-19 pandemic. Learning: Research and Practice, 7(1), 5–19. https://doi.org/10.1080/23735082.2020.1825777

Paesani, K. (2020). Teacher professional development and online instruction: Cultivating coherence and sustainability. Foreign Language Annals, 53(2), 292–297. https://doi.org/10.1111/flan.12468

Parsons, S. A., Hutchison, A. C., Hall, L. A., Parsons, A. W., Ives, S. T., & Leggett, A. B. (2019). US teachers' perceptions of online professional development. Teaching and Teacher Education, 82, 33–42. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2019.03.006

Prestridge, S. (2019). Categorizing teachers' use of social media for their professional learning: A self-generating professional learning paradigm. Computers and Education, 129, 143–158. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2018.11.003

Riessman, C. K. (2007). Narrative methods for the human sciences. Sage.

Sharma, S. K., & Chandel, J. K. (2013). Technology acceptance model for the use of learning through websites among students. International Arab Journal of e-Technology, 3(1), 44-49. https://www.aou.edu.jo/sites/iajet/documents/vol.3/no.1/Technology%20Acceptance%20Model%20for%20the%20Use.pdf

Sharma, S., & Saini, J. R. (2022). On the role of teachers’ acceptance, continuance intention and self-efficacy in the use of digital technologies in teaching practices. Journal of Further and Higher Education, 46(6), 721-736.https://doi.org/10.1080/0309877X.2021.1998395

Shin, D., & Kang, H.-S. (2018). Online language teacher education: Practices and possibilities. RELC Journal, 49(3), 369–380. https://doi.org/:10.1177/0033688217716535

Utami, I. G. A. L. P., & Prestridge, S. (2018). How English teachers learn in Indonesia: Tension between policy-driven and self-driven professional development. TEFLIN Journal, 29(2), 245–265. https://doi.org/10.15639/teflinjournal.v29i2/245-265

Van Manen, M. (1990). Researching lived experience: Human science for an action sensitive pedagogy. Routledge.

Van Nuland, S., Mandzuk, D., Petrick, K. T., & Cooper, T. (2020). COVID-19 and its effects on teacher education in Ontario: A complex adaptive systems perspective. Journal of Education for Teaching, 46(4), 442–451. https://doi.org/10.1080/02607476.2020.1803050

Venkatesh, V., Morris, M. G., Davis, G. B., & Davis, F. D. (2003). User acceptance of information technology: Toward a unified view. MIS Quarterly, 27(3), 425–478. https://doi.org/10.2307/30036540

Widodo, H. P. (2015a). Methodological considerations in interview data transcription. International Journal of Innovation in English Language Teaching and Research, 3(1), 101-107.

Widodo, H. P. (2015b). The development of vocational English materials from a social semiotic perspective: Participatory action research [Unpublished doctoral dissertation], University of Adelaide.

Widodo, H. P., & Allamnakhrah, A. (2020). The impact of a blended professional learning community on teacher educators' professional identity: Towards sustainable teacher professional development. Journal of Education for Teaching, 46(3), 408–410. https://doi.org/10.1080/02607476.2020.1761249

Widodo, A., & Riandi. (2013). Dual-mode teacher professional development: Challenges and revisioning future TPD in Indonesia. Teacher Development, 17(3), 380-392. https://doi.org/10.1080/13664530.2013.813757

Wright, T. (2010). Second language teacher education: Review of recent research on practice. Language Teaching, 43(3), 259–296. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0261444810000030

Yurkofsky, M. M., Blum-Smith, S., & Brennan, K. (2019). Expanding outcomes: Exploring varied conceptions of teacher learning in an online professional development experience. Teaching and Teacher Education, 82, 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2019.03.002